Minoan Bronze Age Civilization of Ancient Crete

The Minoan civilization is what archaeologists have named the people who lived on the island of Crete during the early part of the prehistoric Bronze Age of Greece. We dont know what the Minoans called themselves: they were named Minoan by archaeologist Arthur Evans after the legendary Cretan King Minos. Bronze Age Greek civilizations are split by tradition into the Greek mainland (or Helladic), and the Greek islands (the Cycladic). The Minoans were the first and earliest of what scholars recognize as Greeks, and the Minoans have a reputation of having had a philosophy that harmonized with the natural world. The Minoans were based on Crete, located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, about 160 kilometers (99 miles) south of the Greek mainland. It has a climate and culture different from that of other Bronze Age Mediterranean communities that arose both before and after. Bronze Age Minoan Chronology There are two sets of Minoan chronology, one which reflects stratigraphic levels in archaeological sites, and one which attempts to plot societal changes arising from events, particularly the size and complexity of Minoan palaces. Traditionally, Minoan culture is divided into a series of events. The simplified, event-driven chronology is first elements identified by archaeologists as Minoan appeared about 3000 B.C.E. (Pre-Palatial); Knossos was founded about 1900 B.C.E. (Proto-Palatial), Santorini erupted about 1500 B.C.E. (Neo-Palatial), and Knossos fell in 1375 B.C.E. Recent investigations suggest that Santorini may have erupted about 1600 B.C.E., making event-driven categories less than secure, but clearly, these absolute dates will continue to be controversial for some time to come. The best result is to combine the two. The following timeline is from Yannis Hamilakis 2002 book, Labyrinth Revisited: Rethinking Minoan Archaeology, and most scholars use it, or something like it, today. Minoan Timeline Late Minoan IIIC 1200-1150 B.C.E.Late Minoan II through Late Minoan IIIA/B 1450-1200 B.C.E. (Kydonia) (sites: Kommos, Vathypetro)Neo-Palatial (LM IA-LM IB) 1600-1450 B.C.E. (Vathypetro, Kommos, Palaikastro)Neo-Palatial (MMIIIB) 1700-1600 B.C.E. (Ayia Triadha, Tylissos, Kommos, Akrotiri)Proto-Palatial (MM IIA-MM IIIA) 1900-1700 B.C.E. (Knossos, Phaistos, Malia)Pre-Palatial (EM III/MM IA) 2300-1900 B.C.E. (Vasilike, Myrtos, Debla, Mochlos)Early Minoan IIB 2550-2300 B.C.E.Early Minoan IIA 2900-2550 B.C.E.Early Minoan I 3300-2900 B.C.E. During the Pre-Palatial period, sites on Crete consisted of single farmsteads and dispersed farming hamlets with nearby cemeteries. The farming hamlets were fairly self-sufficient, creating their own pottery and agricultural goods as necessary. Many of the graves in the cemeteries contained grave goods, including white marble figurines of women, hinting at the future cultic assemblages. Cultic sites located on local mountain tops called peak sanctuaries came into use by 2000 B.C.E. By the Proto-Palatial period, most of the people lived in larger coastal settlements which may have  been centers for maritime trading, such as Chalandriani on Syros, Ayia Irini on Kea, and Dhaskaleio-Kavos on Keros. Administrative functions involving the marking of shipped goods using stamp seals were in place at this time. Out of these larger settlements grew the Palatial civilizations on Crete. The capital was at Knossos, founded about 1900 B.C.E.; three other major palaces were located at Phaistos, Mallia, and Zacros. Minoan Economy Pottery technology and various artifacts of the first Neolithic (pre-Minoan) settlers on Crete suggest their possible origin from Asia Minor rather than mainland Greece. About 3000 B.C.E., Crete saw an influx of new settlers, probably again from Asia Minor. Long-distance trading emerged in the Mediterranean as early as EB I, propelled by the invention of the longboat (probably at the end of the Neolithic period), and the desire across the Mediterranean for metals, pottery forms, obsidian and other goods that were not readily available locally. It has been suggested that technology drove the Cretan economy to blossom, transforming the Neolithic society into a Bronze Age existence and development. The Cretan shipping empire eventually dominated the Mediterranean Sea, including mainland Greece and Greek Islands and eastward to the Black Sea. Among the major agricultural goods traded were olives, figs, grains, wine, and saffron.  The main written language of the Minoans was the script called Linear A, which has yet to be deciphered but may represent a form of early Greek. It was used for religious and accounting purposes from about 1800–1450 B.C.E., when it abruptly disappeared to be replaced by Linear B, a tool of the Mycenaeans, and one that we can read today. Symbols and Cults A considerable amount of scholarly research has focused on the Minoan religion and the impact of the social and cultural changes that occurred during the period. Much of the recent scholarship has focused on the interpretation of some of the symbols associated with Minoan culture. Women with Upraised Arms. Among the symbols associated with Minoans is the wheel-thrown terracotta female figurine with upraised arms, including the famous faience snake goddess found at Knossos. Beginning in late Middle Minoan times, Minoan potters made figurines of females holding their arms upward; other images of such goddesses are found on seal stones and rings. Decorations of the tiaras of these goddesses vary, but birds, snakes, disks, oval palettes, horns, and poppies are among the symbols used. Some of the goddesses have snakes coiling around their arms. The figurines fell out of use by the Late Minoan III A-B (Final Palatial), but appear again in LM IIIB-C (Post-Palatial). The Double Axe. The Double Axe is a pervasive symbol by Neopalational Minoan times, appearing as a motif on pottery and seal stones, found written in scripts and scratched into ashlar blocks for palaces. Mold-made bronze axes were also a common tool, and they may have been associated with a group or class of people connected with leadership in agriculture. Important Minoan Sites Myrtos, Mochlos, Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Kommos, Vathypetro, Akrotiri. Palaikastro End of the Minoans For some 600 years, the Bronze Age Minoan civilization thrived on the island of Crete. But in the latter part of the 15th century B.C.E., the end came rapidly, with the destruction of several of the palaces, including Knossos. Other Minoan buildings were torn down and replaced, and domestic artifacts, rituals, and even the written language changed. All of these changes are distinctly Mycenaean, suggesting a population shift on Crete, perhaps an influx of people from the mainland bringing their own architecture, writing styles and other cultic objects with them. What caused this great shift? Although scholars are not in agreement, there are in fact three major plausible theories for the collapse. Theory 1: Santorini Eruption Between about 1600 and 1627 B.C.E., the volcano on Santorini island erupted, destroying the port city of Thera and decimating the Minoan occupation there. Giant tsunamis destroyed other coastal cities such as Palaikastro, which was completely inundated. Knossos itself was destroyed by another earthquake in 1375 B.C.E. There is no doubt that Santorini erupted, and it was devastating. The loss of the port on Thera was exceptionally painful: the economy of the Minoans was based on maritime trade and Thera was its most important port. But the volcano didnt kill everyone on Crete and there is some evidence that the Minoan culture didnt immediately collapse. Theory 2: Mycenaean Invasion Another possible theory is an ongoing conflict with the Mycenaeans mainland in Greece and/or New Kingdom Egypt, over control of the extensive trade network that had developed in the Mediterranean at the time. Evidence for the takeover by Mycenaeans includes the presence of scripts written in the ancient written form of Greek known as Linear B, and Mycenaean funerary architecture and burial practices such as the Mycenaean-type warrior graves. Recent strontium analysis shows that the people buried in warrior graves are not from the mainland, but rather were born and lived their lives on Crete, suggesting that the shift to a Mycenaean-like society may not have included a large Mycenaean invasion. Theory 3: Minoan Insurrection? Archaeologists have come to believe that at least a substantial portion of the reason for the downfall of the Minoans may have been internal political conflict. The strontium analysis research looked at the dental enamel and cortical thighbone from 30 individuals previously excavated from tombs in cemeteries within two miles of the Minoan capital of Knossos. Samples were taken from contexts both before and after the destruction of Knossos in 1470/1490, and 87Sr/86Sr ratios were compared to archaeological and modern animal tissues on Crete and Mycenae in the Argolid mainland. Analysis of these materials revealed that all of the strontium values of individuals buried near Knossos, whether before or after the destruction of the palace, were born and raised on Crete. None could have been born or raised on the Argolid mainland. A Collection End What archaeologists are considering, overall, is that the eruption on Santorini destroying the ports likely caused an immediate interruption in the shipping networks, but did not in itself cause collapse. The collapse came later, perhaps as escalating costs involved with replacing the port and replacing the ships created more pressure on the people on Crete to pay for rebuilding and maintaining the network. The Late Post-Palatial period saw the addition to the ancient shrines on Crete of large wheel-thrown pottery goddess figures with their arms stretched upward. Is it possible, as Florence Gaignerot-Driessen has supposed, that these are not goddesses per se, but votaries representing a new religion replacing the old? For an excellent comprehensive discussion of Minoan culture, see the University of Dartmouths History of the Aegean. Sources Angelakis, Andreas, et al. Minoan and Etruscan Hydro-Technologies. Water 5.3 (2013): 972-87. Print.Badertscher, S., et al. Speleothems as Sensitive Recorders of Volcanic Eruptions – the Bronze Age Minoan Eruption Recorded in a Stalagmite from Turkey. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 392 (2014): 58-66. Print.Cadoux, Anita, et al. Stratospheric Ozone Destruction by the Bronze-Age Minoan Eruption (Santorini Volcano, Greece). Scientific Reports 5 (2015): 12243. Print.Day, Jo. Counting Threads. Saffron in Aegean Bronze Age Writing and Society. Oxford Journal Of Archaeology 30.4 (2011): 369-91. Print.Ferrara, Silvia, and Carol Bell. Tracing Copper in the Cypro-Minoan Script. Antiquity 90.352 (2016): 1009-21. Print.Gaignerot-Driessen, Florence. Goddesses Refusing to Appear? Reconsidering the Late Minoan III Figures with Upraised Arms. American Journal of Archaeology 118.3 (2014): 489-520. Print.Grammatikakis, Ioannis, et al. New Evidence About the Use of Serpentinite in the Minoan Architecture. A ?-Raman Based Study of the â€Å"House of the High Priest† Drain in Knossos. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 16 (2017): 316-21. Print.  Hamilakis, Yannis. Labyrinth Revisited: Rethinking Minoan Archaeology. Oxford, England: Oxbow Books, 2002. Print.Hatzaki, Eleni. The End of an Intermezzo at Knossos: Ceramic Wares, Deposits, and Architecture in a Social Context. Intermezzo: Intermediacy and Regeneration in Middle Minoan Iii Palatial Crete. Eds. Macdonald, Colin F. and Carl Knappett. British School at Athens. London: The British School at Athens, 2013. 37-45. Print.Haysom, Matthew The Double-Axe: A Contextual Approach to the Understanding of a Cretan Symbol in the Neopalatial Period. Oxford Journal Of Archaeology 29.1 (2010): 35-55. Print.Knappett, Carl, Ray Rivers, and Tim Evans. The Theran Eruption and Minoan Palatial Collapse: New Interpretations Gained from Modelling the Maritime Network. Antiquity 85.329 (2011): 1008-23. Print.Molloy, Barry, et al. Life and Death of a Bronze Age House: Excavation of Early Minoan I Levels at Priniatikos Pyrgos. American Journal of Archaeology 118.2 (2014): 307-58. Print.Nuttall, Chris. Friend or Foe: Mycenaeanisation at Phylakopi on Melos in the Late Bronze Age. Rosetta 16 (2014): 15-36. Print.

Describing a Friend Dialogue for English Learners

Read the dialogue and the reading selection to learn about describing both male and female friends.   My Friend My friend Rich is coming to town next week. Have you ever met my him?No, I havent.Hes kind of crazy, but a great guy.Yeah, why do you say so? Whats he like?Hes really hard working, but very much a loner. Hes pretty talented and can do just about anything.Sounds interesting. Is he married?No, he isnt.What does he look like? Maybe my friend Alice would be interested in meeting him.Hes tall, slim and quite good looking. Im sure your friend would find him attractive. Whats she like?Shes outgoing and very athletic.Really? What sports does she like playing?Shes a great tennis player and also goes bicycling a lot.What does she look like?Shes kind of exotic looking. Shes got long dark hair and piercing black eyes. People think she is rather beautiful.Do you think she would like to meet Rich?Sure! Why dont we introduce them?Great idea! Key Vocabulary to be like used for character descriptionto like doing used to state general preferenceswould like to do used to state a specific wishlook like used to speak about physical appearanceloner likes to be alone a lotoutgoing very ambitious and does lots of activitiesathletic very good at sportsexotic from a little known locationpiercing looking deeply intorather very Differences in Vocabulary Between Men and Women Youve probably learned that the adjective handsome is generally used with men  and beautiful with women. Its a general rule, but there are certainly instances in which a woman is handsome or a man is beautiful. Of course, its all in the eye of the beholder.  The same can be said for the adjective pretty which is used with women. Whereas, cute is used when referring to either sex.   This is also true when speaking about a persons character. Any adjective can be used to describe either sex, but some are more common than others. Of course, these days, many people rightly complain about such stereotypes. Still, there are preferences that lie deep in the English language. Guys and gals used to be used to refer to men and women in an informal manner. These days, its common to refer to everyone as guys. Job names have also changed over the years. Its common to change words like businessman to businesswoman or business person. Other job titles such as stewardess are no longer in use.   These changes in vocabulary is an example of how English commonly changes with the times. In fact, English is such a flexible language that its difficult to understand English from four hundred years ago, whereas other languages such as Italian have changed relatively little in comparison.   Key Vocabulary to refer to either sex be used with both male and femalestereotype a general idea, often negative, of how a particular group of people actto change with the times to make changes as the culture changesin the eye of the beholder for the person who is taking noticeto lie deep in the language to be at the roots of a language

Millennials Drive For School Choice - 1894 Words

Millennials’ Drive for School Choice It is notable that the school system has major flaws where variation in methods has caused success and failure to come from different students; this is partially due to the way types of schools function. The flaws in the school system are highlighted in the chapter â€Å"Better Schools: Investing in our future,† from the book, When Millennials Rule: The Reshaping of America, written by David Jack Cahn. They are trying to bring the millennials’ future actions and beliefs to the attention of political campaign organizers. David and Jack Cahn are millennial activists and journalists whose book was publicized by Post Hills Press in 2014. Their book covers present day complications like debt, school reform, and the legalization of marijuana. These topics are highly concerning for millennials and some have been a part of the recent election ballot. I will analyze the chapter â€Å"Better Schools† focusing on charter scho ols. In attempt to improve the system, Millennials have shown initiative by proposing ideas of letting people choose the schools they send their children to, creating a more competitive environment within the school system. The millennials do seem like a unified voting bloc for this issue and do have the resources and know how to effect change. The school system is not working out in the eyes of the millennials and some of these millennials, particularly authors Cahn and Cahn, say â€Å"America’s public education system is broken†Show MoreRelatedGlobal Leadership : The Next Generation Of Global Leaders1333 Words   |  6 PagesAs Millennials continue to grow and dominate the workplace, leaders must identify the factors that will create the next generation of global leaders and how to effectively tap into the vast reservoirs of technological knowledge Millennials bring to the table. 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Cinematography In Macbeth Essay Example For Students

Cinematography In Macbeth Essay When I first watched the two episodes of MacBeth I noticed several differences in the was the two directors portrayed the settings and characters in witch scene. In the first movie I found the witch scene to be very dark and mysterious which made it easy to tell what the witches were doing and the fog and lightning gave me the impression that bad things were yet to come. This atmosphere is totally different from the second video though because the second one takes place on a clear beautiful beach which seems to be very peaceful. They way the second video started out it was kind of difficult to determine what was going on, but as the scene progressed it became easier to understand what was going on. By the was this scene was shot the viewer really has to follow because it seems really strange. It does not follow the typical stereotype of most witches and it is very irregular. The first movie just had a way creepier image to it with the scary music, the witches weird voices and the lightning and stuff going on in the background. At the beginning of the second movie scene Im given the impression that the witches are almost regular people until they start pulling out the arm and rope and stuff. I enjoyed the second movie scene more because it seemed more casual and it really caught my eye because you dont know what is going to happen next. I also liked it because it was simple and it didnt follow the trends of most witch scenes. When I first watched the beach scene I can honestly say that I dislike it, but as I watched it over and over and over and over again I began to notice the little things that made the scene creepy like the squawking seagulls and the mysterious arrival and depart of the witches. The beach seemed like an unlikely place to cast a spell which is why I enjoyed the second movie scene more. So in conclusion these movies are very different in the ways they portrayed the witch scenes at the beginning of Macbeth. They are two totally different styles or directing which both have their positive and negative qualities. Both scenes are based on the same play, but by the first scene it really doesnt seem that way because of the way the director filmed them. But viewing the two scenes changed my perspective on the film industry and how films can change and evolve.